A review of catalytic cracking equipment performance, design criteria, turnaround execution and their combined effect on long-term unit reliability and maintenance


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The authors discuss new and alternative sources of hydrogen production and the way in which optimising separation technologies allows refiners to unlock the value of H2 currently sent to fuel


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The use of longitudinal baffles in heat exchangers is not common, but this type of baffle can increase heat transfer rates while lowering the pressure drop with the same duty observed with segmented baffles 



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A review of current standards and the relationship of turbine over-speed and the time-constant of rotors as it pertains to time lag of the over-speed devices, and the amount of energy stored between the trip valve and the exhaust of the turbine


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At a gas processing plant, real time simulation was used to analyse the design of a surge protection scheme for a natural gas compressor, after questions arose over the system’s effectiveness in the event of an emergency shutdown



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A review of configurations in tailgas treating to achieve 99.9% sulphur recovery with smaller reactors – the result of advances in gas/liquid contactor and desalter technologies, enabling longer run lengths and more effective catalyst performance


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An outline of the treatment of gas streams containing VOCs, focusing on the kinetics and process design aspects needed to achieve over 98% VOC destruction efficiency and less than 15% of nitrogen oxidation converted to nitrogen oxides 



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Hydroprocessing severity and catalyst selection play a significant role in refined product sulphur distribution. But other important factors must be taken into consideration before making an investment to produce ultra low sulphur fuels


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Although many previously discussed concepts differ widely from usual industry practice, the authors have found that in most cases alternative concepts have not only improved reliability but have also reduced capital and operating costs 


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Developments in the area of hydrogen production equipment, configurations, catalysts, materials and automation have brought about improved operational reliability and effluents curtailment, as well as achieving lower operating costs


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Higher percentages of heavier feeds can be processed using FCC catalysts designed with improved coke selectivity and metals tolerance. Feedstock properties, along with their dominant bottoms-cracking mechanisms, are also reviewed


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Optimisation of process variables such as space velocity and operating pressures, using UD-HDS technology, can help to achieve 15ppm sulphur specifications, especially when processing cracked feedstocks


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A description of the properties that are required for a detailed evaluation of resids and for comparison between resids and how they play a role in dictating which refinery operations are necessary for processing



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Faulty equipment specifications sometimes carry unforeseen penalties, with loss of performance. But do not blame the original equipment manufacturer, say the authors – it is the process design engineer’s responsibility to meet the objectives



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Complex problems involving capital and maintenance work at a large olefins plant were overcome by using a system-based work concept to integrate these activities. A case study describes how this was accomplished


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MPT technology has the potential to reduce costs in a variety of natural gas upgrading processes, including steam reforming, FT synthesis and methanol synthesis, and in chemical processes of many types




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Measurement of yields and defining key process parameters from reaction mix sampling can be used to tune process models, update LP vectors, audit revamp or catalyst changes and determine optimum process conditions.
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Scope and capital investment for revamping an existing diesel hydrotreater to meet the 15wppm sulphur standard.  The base design is typical of hydrotreaters commissioned in the early 1990s to meet on-road specifications of 500 wppm sulphur.
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Case studies show how accurate field-measured differential pressure can be interpreted incorrectly when troubleshooting refinery vacuum columns.
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Improvements in process and equipment design with regard to crude unit and delayed coker distillation column performance can reduce metals content.  Vacuum units with a stirpping section and upgraded coker main fractionator wash zones should be considered.
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Significant improvements have been made in FCC reactor temperature control at Farmland's Coffeyville refinery.  Data interpretation is presented along with points to consider when troubleshooting a pressure-balanced FCCU operation.
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An on-line chemical analyser can provide fast chemical analysis of both anticipated and unknown compounds generated from new catalyst formulations.
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More engineers and operators in the petrochemical industry are seeking expertise in catalyst regeneration, presulphiding, turnaround management and other off-site services to help improve reactor and catalyst performance.
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How one precious metals smelter copes with certain impurities or characteristics, which tend to hinder other, more dedicated catalysis recovery operations seen in industrial process.
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In order to choose the right combination of catalyst and technology for the production of diesel with 10ppm sulphur or less, it is essential to have a thorough understanding of the reaction kinetics in diesel hydrotreating from SOR to EOR.
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Two European refineries upgrade reformer technology, resulting in higher reformate and hydrogen yield with improved RONC and longer intervals between regeneration.
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New-generation catalysts, designed with close attention to the paraffin conversion mechanisms and pressure characteristics seen in fixed-bed and CCR units, are further optimised with special catalyst-loading techniques.
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Integration of steamcracker C4/C5 components with a fixed-bed fluid catalytic-cracking reactor employing a shape-selective heterogeneous zeolytic ZSM-5 catalyst.
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A review of the issues to consider when disposing of the heat of combustion from riser coke formation in high severity vacuum gasoil FCC and RFCC units, with operating conditions becoming increasingly demanding.
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Refinery and terminal applications using modular designs where extraction of oxidised sulphur and nitrogen species is carried out without the processing severity and level of investment required with conventional hydrotreating.
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Evaluation of technology, chemistry and economy for increasing middle distillate output and producing less residue, using oxygen enrichment in fluid catalytic crackers with constrained capacity.
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An examination of the detrimental effects caused by dissolved O2 and practical solutions to control fouling, corrosion and expensive unplanned shutdowns when processing feedstocks vulnerable to air or oxygen ingress.
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A review of the available network technologies to bring Cape-Open standards to the process environment with a discussion of the COGents European project and its targets for software discovery and collaboration through the web.
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Separation of FCC catalyst on skeletal density and AAI are in-depth tests to consider when standard analytical methods fail to predit catalyst performance.  Methods described here have been helpful in certain catalyst replacement problems.
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A risk-based approach to optimising inspection activities, eliminating unnecessary work and controlling engineering standards, in addition to aligning contractor objectives with those of the client, contributes to efficient shutdown preparation.
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To clarify failure mechanisms and determine the measures necessary for trouble free operation it is essential to combine the available experiences of all the participants and compare them with the collected data.
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Replacement of original by new generation catalysts in four CCR units and a fixed-bed reformer has improved selectivity and run length.  Better performance was also achieved with technology providing more uniform catalyst distribution.
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For cost effective ULSD revamps, the use of technology such as online analysers, APC and product quality management is considered essential for finding the best solution for each processing step, for both short- and long-term objectives.
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A case study of real-time optimisation applied to a crude distillation unit, and the online results that followed.  The aim, to maintain optimum economic operation against frequent feedback changes, has also brought improved process consistency.
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Three case studies of the way increased capacity and product flexibility were achieved in the face of equipment limitations and operating constraints.  Optimising feed injectors and riser disengagers was among the strategies employed.
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High capacity valve trays have been replaced during a tower revamp with a different tray design, providing greater capacity plus ethylene product.  The trays operate at higher turndown in reflux and feed rates and still produce on-spec products.
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Measuring productivity in capital projects and revamps, such as with the use of formal and analytical productivity measurements to assess field performance, provides management with options for increasing the effeciency of a workforce.
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A review of improvements in filtration and separation techniques for reducing processing costs and avoiding corrosion problems in the removal of H2S, CO2 and other impurities, while also producing high quality gas.
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Improved methods are required to recover elemental sulphur from a gas stream containing H2S and thereby reduce SO2 emissions.  For refining, natural processing and coal gasification, the sulphur recovery unit is the primary area of concern.
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