Case studies of the strategies used to reduce NOx emissions at three European refineries. CO and feed nitrogen effects on emissions were taken into account, and a significant reduction in emissions was achieved with the use of additives
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Additional FCCU capacity can often be achieved by implementing new packing and distributor designs, even if the main fractionator has already been revamped. The author presents some of the factors to be considered in evaluating a revamp
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Analyses of some common process unit limits, emphasising when equipment systems must be modified or new ones added. Knowing just where to focus investment depends primarily on process fundamentals and equipment basics
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Improvements made during naphtha hydrotreater operations at a Middle East refinery focused on the diameter of crude unit overhead line, better corrosion control, an upgraded catalyst grading system and higher furnace temperatures
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Commercial demonstration tests carried out with a recently introduced low investment technology, Aquaconversion, have shown it as a valuable tool in revamping thermal cracking facilities and boosting a refinery's product slate.
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The Shell residue FCC process has been applied to grassroots units in a variety of locations, from Europe to South-east Asia, resulting in higher operating profits for the respective refineries.  Three such operations are discussed here.
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The development and uses of the STAR process in the dehydrogenation of C3, C4 and C5 paraffins are outlined in this article, together with a presentation of capital and conversion costs for the production of MTBE and propylene.
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A proprietary selective low temperature oxidation technology combined with a wet scrubbing system, was applied to a refinery's FCC unit regenerator fluegas, resulting in maximum NOx reduction with no loss of SOx scrubbing performance.
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A new approach to the treatment of FCC feed that increases ultra low sulphur diesel yield is shown in an Asian refinery case study.  The method breaks the link between hydrogenation and cracking functions and offers a three-year payback.
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Defining the optimisation problem and creating a computer model to generate benefits in different scenarios will result in a reliable estimate of what is achievable through the implementation of online optimisation.
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Crude oils high in calcium naphthenate content are being processed using technology developed to remove calcium in crude unit desalting operations, with calcium removal efficiencies averaging 70% on Doba blends



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Staged ULSD catalyst systems are available for the desulphurisation of multiple sulphur species, using combined high-activity CoMo/NiMo catalysts formulated at ratios based on expected levels of alkyl-dibenzothiophenic compounds



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Several wireless technologies are available today. The benefits of implementing these technologies, and the challenges associated with adopting this seemingly high-tech approach for furthering a refinery’s business objectives, are discussed

 
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Refiners continue to push the envelope of reliable hydrocracker operation. Optimised process design and operational improvements can help manage temperature excursions and avoid potential temperature runaways

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Research into the thermal processing of heavy oil using advanced analytical and laboratory techniques has revealed that huge gains are possible, thanks to a new reactor configuration based on the marriage of two commercial technologies


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An integrated approach to chemical treatment can improve reliability, reduce costs and extend the life of cooling systems.  Cooling system problems can be overcome by combining cooling water programs with analytical tools.

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Recent commercial applications in Europe and elsewhere have demonstrated that additives can effectively and reliably control both SOx and NOx emissions to very low levels, thus helping refiners to comply with new EU regulations.

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Integrating the complexities of multi-site refinery supply chain logistics using advanced forecasting, planning and scheduling tools gave one refining company the ability to monitor its supply chain in real-time or near real-time.

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Single-stage partial-burn FCC regenerators can provide a low-cost residue processing option for high flexibility and low emissions.  Examples of specific solutions include improved cyclone designs and catalyst circulation enhancement technology.

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A variety of isomerisation technologies are available, from conventional once-through and deisohexaniser recycle processes to advanced recycle schemes involving molecular separation processes



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Improved catalysts and adsorbents can increase production without the need for a major revamp.  The authors focus on the combinatorial chemistry used to develop heterogeneous catalysts and adsorbents from new zeolitic materials.
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Various strategies are available to control unwanted secondary reactions in the FCCU reactor’s dilute phase, including vapour quench technology, designed to lower the temperature, or close-coupled systems to reduce the dilute phase contact time


 
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Catalyst deactivation is a challenge to FCCU yields when processing residuum. The detrimental effect of nickel and vanadium in forming contaminant coke and hydrogen can be reduced via appropriate passivation technology



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WPHEs save fuel costs and serve as a cost-effective CO2-trimming technology by reducing heater duty in reformers and HDS units. The resulting fuel cost savings add to emission trade benefits


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Several long-term challenges and opportunities face refiners after the introduction of the European Union ETS. These include emissions monitoring, operational improvements, emissions forecasting and economic emission reduction



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Managing current hydrogen infrastructure and planning for future requirements requires careful selection of the best combination of recovery, expansion, efficiency improvements, purification and new H2 supply options



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Simulation, optimisation and identification of projects for the hydrogen system at an Austrian refinery has helped to improve its potential of over †5 million a year. The authors describe the methodology applicable to hydrogen networks


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Gasification of low-value refinery residuals could be used to raise utilities and hydrogen, allowing the relatively easy capture of half the plant’s CO2 emissions. LP modelling also helps to examine balances between SOx and CO2 emissions



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 An illustration of how membrane separation technology can be integrated into a clean fuel strategy at low capital cost relative to hydrotreating. Effective sulphur removal from certain naphtha streams, avoiding the octane penalty, is described

 
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A typical refinery configuration is used to show changes in the utilisation of hydrogen from 1990 to the present, with a look into the future. Process strategies to achieve more efficient use of hydrogen under future regulations are presented



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From fouling and catalyst carryover to high feed nickel levels and varying feed qualities, FCCU problems can be solved quickly and cost effectively, says the author, through a well-designed and properly applied chemical programme 



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Statistical process control techniques can be used in analysing and monitoring FCCUs. The author gives examples of the use of XmR charts in evaluating catalyst performance data and coke yield, and reviews other possible applications



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Based on large-scale pilot plant and commercial FCC data, the authors consider the influence of operational variables in catalyst stripability, including the use of sampling and radiotracer techniques


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A practical and economic comparison of crude quality, pre-treating, post-treating, FCC additives and sulphur credit options. Solutions to meeting future gasoline specifications could involve a combination of these options 



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A study of the economics of applying oxidative desulphurisation technology, with its dependence on the operating pressure of existing hydrotreating capacity. Two case studies show how this new route can form an effective ULSD strategy



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Heavy oil upgrading performance and profitability have been improved at a refinery in Poland by a new low sediment ebullating bed resid catalyst technology. The authors report improved unit conversion and reduced need for HCO diluents



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An account of the way ceramic technology can reduce hydrotreater operating cost and downtime by lowering the initial pressure drop. Use of dual function ceramic media also allows for the initial removal of nickel and vanadium


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Costly unscheduled hydroprocessing unit turnarounds caused by fouling can be prevented. This study explores the root cause of process fouling mechanisms and suggests cost-effective means for implementing mitigation strategies


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With a growing demand in the petrochemical industry for extended plant availability, the authors demonstrate how a new design practice was applied to a hydrocracker revamp that maximised the technical availability of the unit


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Installation of vortex tube clusters in crude unit preflash drums has eliminated foam carry-over, increasing diesel and atmospheric gasoil product yields. By avoiding preflash drum replacement, these retrofits have cut revamp investment



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Sulphur-reducing chemistry that preserves gasoline yield and minimises octane loss while avoiding cut point penalties can help meet clean fuel specifications where post treatment and additive systems may not be adequate.
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Upgrading of extra heavy residues and oil sands bitumen has been demonstrated with a proprietary two-stage process incorporating slurry hydrotreatment, using a molybdenum-based catalyst followed by solvent deasphalting.
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The authors describe how crude and side-cut analysis, laboratory and field data lead to strategies for managing high severity operating conditions needed for pocessing opportunity crudes.
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The authors describe how careful selection of catalyst and additives holds the key to achieving the objectives for improving naphtha RON and throughput.  Each refiner has to develop his own system for choosing the appropriate catalyst.
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Replacement of original by new generation catalysts in four CCR units and a fixed-bed reformer has improved selectivity and run length.  Better performance was also achieved with technology providing more uniform catalyst distribution.
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For cost effective ULSD revamps, the use of technology such as online analysers, APC and product quality management is considered essential for finding the best solution for each processing step, for both short- and long-term objectives.
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A case study of real-time optimisation applied to a crude distillation unit, and the online results that followed.  The aim, to maintain optimum economic operation against frequent feedback changes, has also brought improved process consistency.
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Investigation of the transient state and optimisation of a fluidised-bed catalytic cracking unit for maximum feed while satisfying system constraints. One of the most important goals has been optimisation from an operating viewpoint



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Hydroprocessing severity and catalyst selection play a significant role in refined product sulphur distribution. But other important factors must be taken into consideration before making an investment to produce ultra low sulphur fuels


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Although many previously discussed concepts differ widely from usual industry practice, the authors have found that in most cases alternative concepts have not only improved reliability but have also reduced capital and operating costs 


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Developments in the area of hydrogen production equipment, configurations, catalysts, materials and automation have brought about improved operational reliability and effluents curtailment, as well as achieving lower operating costs


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Higher percentages of heavier feeds can be processed using FCC catalysts designed with improved coke selectivity and metals tolerance. Feedstock properties, along with their dominant bottoms-cracking mechanisms, are also reviewed


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Optimisation of process variables such as space velocity and operating pressures, using UD-HDS technology, can help to achieve 15ppm sulphur specifications, especially when processing cracked feedstocks


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A description of the properties that are required for a detailed evaluation of resids and for comparison between resids and how they play a role in dictating which refinery operations are necessary for processing



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Manufacturing technology advancements have lead to step-out improvements in catalyst performance and stability for ULSD, FCC pretreater and hydrocracker pretreater applications



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Refiners can obtain value from solutions beyond the catalyst selection process if the decision-making process includes a review of the entire catalyst cycle



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A large number of existing diesel hydrotreaters are operated at pressures below 30 bar. The catalyst used for production of ULSD in these hydrotreaters differs from catalyst formulations that perform well at higher pressures


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Upgrading existing hydrocrackers from single-stage to two-stage recycle offers significantly higher flexibility for increasing high-quality FCC feeds and naphtha/diesel production



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Hydrocracking unit product quality and yields improve with stacked bed loading technology. The catalysts loaded in each bed are customised for changes in reactor conditions encountered throughout the unit’s typical run length


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Feedstock hydrotreatment catalyst provides improved HDS and HDN activity at various unit operating pressures. The resulting economic benefits are gained through better product yield structures and longer pre-treatment cycles


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High-accessibility catalysts allow more difficult feedstocks to be processed through the FCC. These new formulations can add considerable value to refiners running more conventional feeds, but who may have hardware or operating constraints limiting unit performance



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A post audit at a Japanese refinery using a proprietary FCC model and catalyst-evaluation methodology determines a real improvement in profitability. The methodology for isolating the effect of catalyst alone on FCC yields is discussed



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Removal of thiophenic and olefinic compounds while maintaining high octanes is an important challenge facing refiners producing clean gasoline.
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Low-density, platinum-based cylindrically shaped catalysts can overcome maldistribution problems and improve catalyst performance measured by PIN, H2/HC and isobutane ratios, and characterised by higher activity, short loading and lower costs.
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Extrudates are being remanufactured into alternative sizes and shapes for reactor activity grading and void-space grading as well as to help prevent pressure drop build-up caused by particulates and polymerisation.
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An extensive range of hydroprocessing technologies has been developed through a combination of long-term R&D commitment and commercial experience.  The result is compact reactor internals that maximise reactor volume use, and superior gas/liquid distribution and quench performance.
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By combining specially designed catalyst  and process technology, the SCANfining process selectively removes sulphur from FCC naphthas while preserving olefins, so avoiding undesirable octane loss and H2 consumption.
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A series of modifications to the FCC unit at Jeddah refinery, Saudi Arabia, including an improved feed nozzle design, has resulted in better product selectivity and unit profitability. Further modifications are now under way.

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Refining and petrochemical facilities in some countries are designed and constructed as separate entities, with no intention of integrating the plants. For future facilities, integration may be the preferred route.
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A combination of improved feed atomisation via new elevated nozzles, control software and latest catalyst technology has resulted in increased feedrate, better gasoline yeields and enhancement of octane at Sannazzaro.
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The Irvad process is claimed as a breakthrough for removing heteroatoms from liquid carbon streams up to 240'C endpoint, using a solid adsorbent to contact liquid countercurrently in a multi-stage, fluidised adsorber.  The adsorbent is regenerated in a reactivator, using heated reactivation gas.
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The author describes how adopting identified C6- and C7+ hydrocarbon concentrations in the reforming and isomerisation feeds can increase profits and transform gasoline into a new, more environmentally friendly grade.
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This article discusses a methodology for extending the use of hydrogen flux monitoring equipment to assess quantitively the severity of hydrogen charging and relate the response directly to the material's resistance or susceptibility to wet H2S cracking.
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A description of the commercial success that came from implementing a strategy to improve hydrocracking unit performance, including the methods used for controlling polynuclear aromatics and their effect on performance
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Total Site analysis, apart from improving a refinery's energy effeciency, also brings capital avoidance in site expansion, process unit debottlenecking and other benefits.  This article describes how it was applied to a real life problem.
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The authors describe how propylene and amylenes can be alkylated using much less sulphuric acid catalyst.  When a propylene-rich feed is alkylated at high acid strengths, or amylene-rich feed is alkylated at low strengths, acid consumption is similar to that of butylenes.
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The authors describe the technology and economics of the way a refinery with a bisbreaker unit can reduce production of heavy fuel oil.
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Non-regenerable absorbents are being used increasingly in refineries to remove small levels of sulphur impurities, such as copper strip corrosion.  Factors determining the suitability of such processes, and some operational examples, are presented here.
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A new technology has been developed for the combined processing of organic wastes, using feedstocks such as coal and petroleum residue.  It enables clean transportation fuels and value-added chemicals to be produced economically and in an environmentally benign manner.
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Data in this article are based on European conditions at the beginning of 1996 for refineries with a distillation capacity of about 5 million tons/year.
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Hungarian Oil and Gas Company has developed a distillate hydrowaxing process for the purpose of improving the cold flow properties of heavy gas oils by reducing C16+ normal paraffin levels.  This comprises hydrocracking over a selective catalyst which is bifunctional and contains ZSM-5 type zeolite.
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Clean fuels legislation, which began in the USA, has now spread to Europe, and Asia is expected to follow.  Its introduction comes at a difficult time for refiners but short-term compliance should not prove technically challenging.
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Design of FCCUs has traditionally been aimed at optimising process yields and heat recovery, but legislation on emissions from refineries required changed investment criteria.  At Sweden's Scanraff refinery a technology that is not in common use is being applied in a project to reduce NOx.
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A means of achieving efficient utilisation of refinery residues in developing countries for the production of power, and the coproduction of value added product such as urea fertiliser, is described in this article.
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The four basic modes of catalytic reformer operation in modern refineries are summarised.  Degrees of freedom for optimisation, and the need for catalyst deactivation predictions and infrastructure requirements, are also reviewed.
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This article describes the simulation methods and data testing employed to upgrade the main fractionator at Elf Milford Haven's alkylation unit, a prime aim of which was to improve the ratio of recycle isobutane to olefin.
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The MagnaCat process for removing spent catalyst uses permanent magnets to separate metal-laden particles from newer ones, enabling the refiner to return the most active FCC catalyst particles to the unit, with economic benefits.  

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The SynSat process of customised diesel hydroprocessing has been used in a variety of circumstances since the beginning of the Nineties, and in this article its commercial effectiveness in three different refineries is analysed.

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With deregulation of electric power production, the question of how to turn waste products of upgrading processes into assets may be answered by the combination of the Eureka cracking process and the Texaco Gasification Power System (TGPS).
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Refiners face an unprecedented technological and economical challenge in meeting the European Union's propsed new fuel specifications.  This article develops a planning strategy for the typical cat cracking refinery with adequate conversion capacity.
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The Integrated Choice Etherification System is aimed at the production of different components.  The most important features of the etherification technologies employed, and their impact on the reformulated gasoline pool, are outlined and discussed in this article.
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Leuna 2000 in Germany is the first greenfield refinery to be built in Europe for more than 20 years.  Its design, engineering and construction is state-of-the-art technology, governed by stringent standards, resulting in one of the most advanced, efficient and environmentally friendly plants in the world.
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Heavier FCC feedstocks and increasingly stringent emissions regulations and motor fuel specifications have led to the integration of pre- and post- hydrotreatment units into FCC complexes and more controlled operations.
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Maintenance cost overruns result from inadequate cost estimating and the emergence of unidentified work that has to be done.  Correctly defining work in advance reduces costs, and the author discusses how this can be done.
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The Hycon process has been operated at Shell's Pernis refinery for more than six years, and a moving bed retrofit has been developed to revamp fixed bed LR-HDS units, enabling them to handle heavier, higher metal feeds and to attain a cycle length of two years or longer.
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Fixed-Bed Alkylation (FBA) represents a new generation of alkylation technology, evolved from proven methods in use for many years.  The process described here combines the benefits of a liquid catalyst system with the advantages of a fixed-bed reactor.
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Tonen Corporation of Japan started-up its first residue hydrocracker, based on the H-Oil process, last year, after completing field construction of the 25000bpsd unit in a record 13 months.  This article outlines the history of the project, from technology selection to startup.
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European regulations covering gasoline quality standards have moved on since Part I of this article appeared in the last issue.  With further reductions in sulphur levels now likely, a comparison of catalytic distillation (CD) and conventional technology in benzene reduction is discussed. 
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Recent economic studies have indicated that Fluidised Bed Coking could be an attractive option for maximising use of the bottom of the barrel.  It is described as a continuous and relatively low cost thermal conversion process.
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An innovative approach to eliminate bottlenecks on a residue FCC unit has resulted in much-increased tapping capacity.  The fluidisation quality and catalysis circulation after the revamp, together with the technical transformation and an economic analysis, are discussed in this article.
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Commercial tests have been completed on a system which presulphides hydroprocessing catalyst before it is loaded.  XpresS-treated catalyst is loaded in air into the hydroprocessing unit.  Startup is simplified, and results show the presulphided catalyst is as active as those sulphided in-situ.
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 In anticipation of new diesel specifications in Europe, a technology has been developed which claims low initial investment but maintains maximum flexibility in upgrading.

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Factors in the corrosion of effluent condensers in hydrocrackers are the subject of this article, which includes a case study of the problems experienced at Riyadh refinery, Saudi Arabia, and the corrective actions that were taken.

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A review of the technical and financial advantages of the services - offsite and onsite - that are available to help refiners keep down costs and obtain the best performance from catalyst management.

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A description of the way in which the Hyvahl technology for atmospheric and vacuum residue hydroprocessing associates a permutable reactor system with a novel HDS catalyst for improving run length and product quality.

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An FCC catalyst technology has been developed which enhances the accessibility of large molecules to the functional sites and the egress of reaction products.

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Catalytic technologies for the control of Nox and SOx have been developed and commercially proven in a number of different FCC units around the world.  They provide a low-cost route for environmental compliance.

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Risk Based Inspection methodology allows risk to be measured in terms of personal safety, damage to equipment, environmental damage and business or financial impact.  The author describes its development and effectiveness.
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A look at the reasons behind the development of the IEC-61508 standard, with a description of the techniques that can be used for integrity level evaluation.

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An account of the planning and organisation that went into a project to converge the operations of a combined 540 000bpd refinery and petrochemical plant, thereby minimising processing costs and optimising product distribution.

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An analysis of the different refinery bottoms processing schemes, identifying configurations that produce the lowest cost feedstock for the integrated gasification combined cycle complex while maximising refinery profitability.

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The author presents a systematic approach to the problems that follow from the increasing demand for hydrogen in the search for clean, low sulphur fuels - and which can result in greater CO2 emissions which refinereis are anxious to reduce.
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An outline of the fundamentals of standpipe flow - the author discusses problems often encountered in standpipes, diagnostic tools that can be used to identify the nature of the problem and possible corrective actions that can be taken.

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The practical implications of producing an ultra low sulphur diesel (ULSD) are reviewed in this article.  The authors define ULSD as a diesel transportation fuel with 5ppm or less of sulphur and with no other specification changes imposed.

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Modern hydrocracking continues its importance as a refining process of choice in the current era of rapidly changing product specifications, particularly for transportation fuels.  Its process and catalyst characteristics are reviewed here.

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An account of studies of the effect of FCC regenerator oxygen enrichment on NOx and SO2 emissions, showing that oxygen enrichment significantly decreases NOx emissions and those of SO2 when SOx transfer agent is present.
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When it was found that standard cyclone designs did not always work reliably, an extensive development programme was initiated to design and produce cyclone systems specifically to form part of a refinery's overall FCC operations.

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Results of using sale dispersant additives on a badly fouled FCC unit has shown that the method allows refiners to avoid more costly methods of naphtha fractionation and, potentially, water washing of the main fractionator.

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The authors describe how selective application of technologies involving partial oxidation, total oxidation and deep neutralisation could add value to caustic streams while meeting environmental quality standards.

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The multiple challenges of meeting fuel specifications and upgrading low value streams, such as LCO and heavy naphtha, call for a comprehensive understanding of various hydroprocessing options.  This article discusses some of them.

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A description of a novel hydrocracking technology that offers refiners a cost effective way of complying with European 2005 diesel specifications, taking into account new configurations necessary to meet capacity and quality targets.

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New zeolite and matrix components, designed with high intrinsic stability and low delta coke and metals tolerance properties, have demonstrated an ability to process high boiling range feedstocks, with improved FCC gasoline quality.

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Moves to minimise sulphur emissions are causing refiners to consider more active hydrodesulphurisation catalysts in revamp projects.  For obtaining ultra low diesel, the authors discuss the benefits of NiMo and CoMo catalyst combinations.

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A discussion of the typical restraints encountered in FCC operation and the methods available to alleviate them, specifically through changes in operation or catalyst, or both - the objective being to increase the fresh feed to the FCC unit.

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Aimed at helping refiners to understand the issues in selecting the appropriate technology for meeting new limitations on sulphur in gasoline, this article reviews current and future specifications and offers a range of available options.

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Refiners in Europe and elsewhere are having to deal with new specifications for gasoline, which are likely to be followed by even tougher regulations in the future, including benzene and aromatics restrictions affecting naphtha reforming.

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Technology is available for meeting 15ppmw sulphur for road transport diesel, but technologies required to produce ultra low sulphur diesel are not necessarily the same as those for producing diesel with high cetane and low polyaromatics.

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A comparison of fixed bed and ebullated bed hydroprocessing rom the viewpoint of the process and sediment formation.  The authors also look at new grades of catalysts for fixed bed and ebullated bed units.

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A cost effective maintenance strategy is of prime importance to the profitability of a refinery.  This article compares various strategies - like condition-based maintenance and reliability-centred maintenance - with risk-based maintenance.

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Hydrotreating FCC feed is a viable option for refiners wishing to produce ultra low sulphur gasoline and diesel fuels, and the economics are superior to product-treating, say the authors, but they warn of the high capital costs that this entails.

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Individual innovations to improve RFCC catalysts, the authors believe, must be an open process and combined to produce continuous development: a wall of secrecy around new developments only serves to constrain future advancement.

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This article reviews the latest developments in a wet scrubbing system that is used to reduce particulate SO2 and SO3 within one simple process.  It can be applied as a particulate-only device and later be converted to particulate and SOx.

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Safety issues concerning HF alkylation units, combined with incentives to process a wider range of olefin feedstock has resulted in options for converting these units to sulphuric acid technology.

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The authors describe an integratd approach to dealing with the complexities of producing ultra low sulphur diesel, involving analytical support and process research as well as computer simulation.

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The authors describe a catalyst managment tool for improving FCCU profitability where metal variations affect operating conditions and addition rates.  It is argued that refiners have the opportunity to increase their margins considerably.

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Cheaper fuels do not always reduce costs, say the authors, and an alternative is cogeneration.  It is argued that fuel saving programmes and cogeneration, applied worldwide, could reduce world fuel consumption by some 26 million tons a year.

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Injection of high viscosity PDMS fluids for controlling the buildup of foam in delayed cokers reduces costs while at the same time increasing capacity and maintaining downstream quality control.    

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With the production of ultra low sulphur diesel now threatening to become a major investment cost for refineries, work is going ahead on a technology that can be used to desulphurise naphtha and diesel in the vapour phase.

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An account of how interactions of unit-specific operating variables, combustion promoters and additives on high temperature fluegasees will affect environmental objectives.  Novel catalytic additives can effectively reduce NOx emissions.

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This article presents insights into the key considerations for residue upgrading and details some of the advances in technology, including online computer control and an innovative water management/coke recovery system.

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The Kyoto Protocol has been one of the drivers, together with mounting regulations and a variety of environmental issues, behind the efforts being made by refiners in the Middle East to develop more cost effective technology.

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Refiners in China are having to tackle problems on two fronts: a growing demand for gasoline and diesel in an expanding national economy, against a raft of new regulations.  One answer has been the development of a new hydrotreatment.

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Processing mishaps can occur if catalyst is placed in abnormal conditions.  These catastophes include temperature runaways, the formation of toxic nickel carbonyl, steam-reforming disasters, unplanned exotherms and side reactions.

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ZSM-5-based catalysts are being used in FCCUs to increase propylene yields by as much at 15%.  Case studies demonstrate technology capable of providing coke - or LPG - constrained FCCUs more flexibility
to improve propylene yields.

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Staged investment and reformer technology improvement strategies are available for increasing hydrogen production, cycle time and reliability.  Options include revamps to SR reformers and hybrid SR/CCR Dualformers, as well as new CCR unit investments.

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Until recently, hydrogen addition-based technology and carbon rejection upgrading technology have been hindered by their low potential profitability, owing to high capital costs and low price spreads between light and heavy oil products.

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Two new proprietary catalyst manufacturing technologies have been developed that provide a range of products, extending ULSD performance and operational flexibility beyond the level delivered by current technology.
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Laboratory data demonstrates the performance of catalyst technology designed to address the three fundamentals of heavy feed cracking: coke and dry gas selectivity, metals tolerance and bottoms upgrading.

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Technology and market imperatives converge to enhance residue desulphurisation and conversion value.  The current market forces that presage a boom in resid hydrotreatment are examined along with recently reported progress in technology. 

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Historically available processes for large-scale SO2 recovery as elemental sulphur are inherently problematic in terms of operability, emissions, product quality and fuel consumption.  An SO2 reduction process can overcome these drawbacks.

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Through an extensive study and 18-month trial, a Canadian refinery chose SOx reduction additive technology to reduce its SOx emissions.  Variations in FCCU operating conditions and changes in SO2 emissions targets were taken into consideration.

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Inbuilt design and operational safety practice in fluid catalytic cracking.  Changes to FCC processing over time are described with examples of improvements.  Safety instrumentation is discussed, along with the best way of operating the vapour line blind.

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Modification of a hydrocracking unit's fractionation section was re-evaluted and an alternative processing scheme developed, which reduced the total installation cost by almost 50% while mitigating safety annd metallurgical concerns.

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The use of both regenerative and non-regenerative wet scrubbing systems to control the emission of particulate and SO2 is well proven and established.  Several scenarios, design and selection criteria for each type of system are discussed.

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A new alternative to the Claus unit tail gas treatment has been found in the wet gas scrubber.  This can maintain or increase acid  gas feed rates to the front end of the sulphur recovery unit, while reducing SO2 emissions.

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Top-down approach case studies use qualitative and semi-quantitative asessment models to build a picture of risk, review current mitigation and identify immediate action to improve risk management and increase reliability.

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As the preferred decision-support-tool for the oil industry supply chain, benchmarking of linear programming is as important as benchmarking actual refinery operations.

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Part I identified the operating factors to consider when consolidating a group of distributed control rooms.  Part II explores the design and systemic measures that can enchance productivity while satisfying needs for process safety and risk management.

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Is processing opportunity crudes for every refiner? Technical challenges and economic benefits from processing high-acid crudes and botton-of-the-barrel feedstocks are identified.

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Integrated solutions help refiners overcome unpredictable industry challenges.  through a continuous improvement cycle, refiners can derive insight from the plan, perform and perfect stages.

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Vacuum unit design can influence vacuum gas yield, product quality and run length.  A wet vacuum unit with residue stripping achieves the highest cutpoint and produces the lowest metals content.

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Investigating corrosive chemicals in BFW, defective analysing systems and incomplete treatment of steam systems, resulting in serious transfer line exchanger failures.  A number of incidents initiated the thorough investigation of root causes.

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Gamma scanning is a powerful tool that can be used to determine the cause of flooding and regain column efficiency.  Debutaniser capacity and performance were improved after tower scanning technology pinpointed mechanical and hydraulic defects.

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The Six-Sigma approach to asset management describes the level of variations or defects present in a process.  Identifying critical processes and their contributing input variables provides opportunities to remedy the sources of defects.

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High-severity catalytic cracking using a proprietary down-flow reactor can maximise propylene production.  The new process features a high reaction temperature and high catalyst-to-oil ratio along with a short contact time.

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Hydrogen-generation unit safety during startup and shutdown is based on experience sharing.  The safe startup of any process unit depends on the knowledge base of the operating and maintenance personnel.

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Pairing of isobutylene pretreatment with low-temperature alkylation offers dehydro-based MTBE operators the opportunity to incorporate isobutane with isobutylene to produce large volumes of high-quality gasoline blendstock.

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A recently developed alkylation technology incorporates low-temperature isothermal operation and a refrigeration compressor.  The acid-hydrocarbon separation incorporates simple coalescers and readily available reactor-contactor internals.

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Two cases for treating sour natural gas with H2S, CO and mercaptans are discussed.  These configurations are designed to prepare a treated gas that is suitable for GTL and LNG applications or normal pipeline gas specifications.

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Burner testing and CFD modelling can assure a burner will perform properly.  Special considerations are discussed for improving burner combustion characteristics in new compact thermal cracking furnace radiant sections.

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Reliability is key to improving IGCC power-generation unit economics, provided it can be achieved with excessive Capex increases.  However, focus on a single subsystem such as gasification is insufficient for the success of the overall IGCC concept.

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A discussion of design considerations for burner technology used in cracking furnaces.  Significant improvements include more uniform heat flux profile, wider turndown, stable flame, high combustion efficiency, and low CO and NOx emissions.

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Strategic modelling for turbine oil conditions in refineries and petrochemical plants focuses on different types of filtration equipment and the philosophy that accompanies each.    

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Factors influencing the selection of propylene yield design points and a comparative study of an absorption-based gas concentration unit relative to cold-box recovery design show how refiners can leverage existing assets to close the market gap for propylene production.

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Proper crude unit overhead system design is important when building a new unit or revamping an existing one to process different crudes.  Overhead condenser designs should meet the specific processing objectives, such as distillate yield, run length and energy recovery.

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Case study where the impact of a FCC feed hydrotreater outage was minimised by running carefully selected feeds combined with sulphur-reducing technology appropriate for the type of sulphur species expected to be processed during the outage.

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A solid-acid catalyst (SAC) alkylation process can be used to effectively revamp an olefin polymerisation unit with minimal costs.  An engineered SAC has been designed at multiple levels to give long life, resistance to poisons and high product octane.

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Parametric correlations can predit WGC performance curves at different speeds and molecular weights.  However, performance curves in a range of speeds and suction pressures must first be made available.

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An acetylene converter's poor performance was improved through the implementation of a succession of changes.  Over a period involving several strategies, all acetylene off-specification incidents and flaring events were eventually eliminated.

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Flaring large volumes of gas by combustion should be safe, cost-effective and environmental friendly.  Criteria ang general rules for industrial flaring steam include flare size and design, ability to entrain atmospheric air and other parameters.    

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PTQ has just published the Bapco Technical Writing Style Guide, based on two decades' experience of written communication in the technical services department of The Bahrain Petroleum Company.  This article is based on the section relating to eamil.  The Style Guide can now be downloaded from www.eptq.com.

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As refiners move to process heavier crudes, hydrocracking and hydrotreating have taken on a more prominent role.  The technical challenges posed by the chemical composition of heavy feedstock is analysed along with results of catalyst development efforts.

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Reliability improvement and MACT II compliance for an FCCU were achieved with regenerator modifications and new third-stage separator system.  Benefits included five-year run turn around cycle and less after-burn.

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How one refinery's low-investment revamp strategy boosted FCC performance.  Unit limitations are discussed in detail, followed by the options that were explored and the final revamp carried out for overcoming unit constraints.

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Simulation of a tail gas-treating unit contaminated with sodium and heat-stable salt anions.  Comparisons are made between plant performance data and the simulations.  Accurate solvent analysis leads to improved simulation accuracy.

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A major obstacle to greenhouse gas reduction in refinery and petrochemical operations is the need for CO2 storage or sequestration.  However, chemical convertion of captured CO2 to CO, which can be converted into valuable hydrocarbons, may be possible.

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Prediction of blending indices and characterisation of fuel components have increased in complexity with the blending of biofuels and additives.  Case studies show how a real time system for the computation of blending indices has improved fuel recipe quality.

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Zero-incident techniques for excelling in health and safety performance involve commitment, involvement, analysis, prevention and training.  The challenge is to translate these fundamental principles into action.

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The proper evaluation for new FCCU cyclone equipment or the risk assessment can substantially impact profitability.  The combination of assumed pressure, corrosion rates, mechanical loading and fluctuating temperature must be taken into account.

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To minimise catalyst deactivation, a regeneration system should be operated in counter-current flow with a superficial regenerator velocity that is well into the turbulent flow regime.  Part II will explore factors in regenerator design that relate to emissions.

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The safe removal of volatile hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulphide gas and pyrophoric iron sulphide from refinery equipment before inspection is indispensable.  A chemical cleaning programme reduces downtime and the need for mechanical cleaning.

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Case studies from the energy industry explain strategies for extending the benefits of simulation and modelling across the value chain.  Benefits include the ability to make the decision-making process more efficient using an intuitive bidirectional interface.

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Assessing the impact of changing emissions costs.  Case studies of typical European refinery configurations show how the inclusion of CO2 LP-based modelling costs can change operations in the short term and impact configurations in the longer term.

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Revamping a mild hydrocracker to a world-scale ULSD hydrotreater presented some unique design challenges and highlighted several factors that are key to success, including an experienced client team and strong licensor and contractor teams.

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Options for minimising catalyst deactivation and reducing emissions are discussed.  In the previously published part I, catalyst deactivation in the regenerator was addressed.  Here, regenerator design as it relates to regenerator emissions is considered.

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Latest developments in SOx - reduction additives are discussed along with their relative merits and appropriate applications.  Examples show how refineries have chosen to meet SOx emissions limits, and the rationale behind the choices made is explained.

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A practical approach to asset integrity management is provided along with an insight into a suitable methodology of how this can best be achieved.  This includes all essential aspects of operations.    

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An overview of Fischer-Tropsch technologies for the production of diesel from syngas using a variety of feedstocks.  Process technology, reactor design and catalyst requirements to achieve industral-scale diesel and petrochemical production are discussed.

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As financial resources drive most business practices today, a clean understanding of the asset management levels for optimising the return on capital employed (ROCE) is mandatory for an operator to be successful with the owner and board of directors.

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The impact of processing bitumen-derived feeds on FCC operations and product yields is assessed, and the capital investments required to process varying quantities of bitumn feeds are discussed.   

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The results of a series of cracking experiments are discussed, where the hydrocarbon partial pressure was varied by altering the total reactor pressure, feed rate and amount of lift gas.  Light olefin yields and gasoline sulphur are also considered.

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The simultaneous processing of light reformate and light straight run is a cost-effective solution for more complete benzene reduction and the isomerisation of hydrogenated C5/C6, particularly with regard to MSAT II requirements.

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The synergy of solvent deasphalting and FCC can provide economic access to heavy ends.  Pilot plant data on bottom-of-the-barrel processing options are examined, which can be used as presented or combined with other options such as coking.

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Effective strategies for placing high-value oil and petrochemical products from Russia into international markets can benefit from partnerships with Russian design, R&D institutes and leading Western engineering companies, together with proper funding.

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Case study of a kerosene hydrotreater shows that combining new and old technologies - a unique inlet diffuser with Raschig rings - can significantly improve liquid distribution and catalyst utilisation when producing ultra-low-sulphur products in a trayless reactor.

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