A look at some options in the hydrocarbon processing industry for dealing with sulphur during vent handling and the removal of H2S from vent streams, which can fit well into a facility's overall storage and handling system.
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Analyses of some common process unit limits, emphasising when equipment systems must be modified or new ones added. Knowing just where to focus investment depends primarily on process fundamentals and equipment basics
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The cost effectiveness of increasing refinery hydrogen capacity with compact convection reforming-based plants. Depending on available feedstocks, existing process configurations and operating conditions, medium-scale units are options
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Case studies demonstrate how operating and catalytic changes can result in higher FCC rates and improved conversion between turnaround cycles. Even with lower feed quality, the author argues, costs can be controlled and margins improved
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A master plan for a refinery/petrochemical complex justifies comprehensive study of all the variables, from market forecast to operating costs.  This article discusses the methodology and reports the results from a study case involving technology to maximise propylene.
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A novel sulphur-tolerant dearomatisation catalyst, ASAT, for LCO upgrading, is featured as a part of integrated hydroprocessing, covering desulphurisation, mild hydrocracking and hydrodewaxing.
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An extensive range of hydroprocessing technologies has been developed through a combination of long-term R&D commitment and commercial experience.  The result is compact reactor internals that maximise reactor volume use, and superior gas/liquid distribution and quench performance.
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By combining specially designed catalyst  and process technology, the SCANfining process selectively removes sulphur from FCC naphthas while preserving olefins, so avoiding undesirable octane loss and H2 consumption.
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A series of modifications to the FCC unit at Jeddah refinery, Saudi Arabia, including an improved feed nozzle design, has resulted in better product selectivity and unit profitability. Further modifications are now under way.

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Refining and petrochemical facilities in some countries are designed and constructed as separate entities, with no intention of integrating the plants. For future facilities, integration may be the preferred route.
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A combination of improved feed atomisation via new elevated nozzles, control software and latest catalyst technology has resulted in increased feedrate, better gasoline yeields and enhancement of octane at Sannazzaro.
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The Irvad process is claimed as a breakthrough for removing heteroatoms from liquid carbon streams up to 240'C endpoint, using a solid adsorbent to contact liquid countercurrently in a multi-stage, fluidised adsorber.  The adsorbent is regenerated in a reactivator, using heated reactivation gas.
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The author describes how adopting identified C6- and C7+ hydrocarbon concentrations in the reforming and isomerisation feeds can increase profits and transform gasoline into a new, more environmentally friendly grade.
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This article discusses a methodology for extending the use of hydrogen flux monitoring equipment to assess quantitively the severity of hydrogen charging and relate the response directly to the material's resistance or susceptibility to wet H2S cracking.
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A review of catalytic cracking equipment performance, design criteria, turnaround execution and their combined effect on long-term unit reliability and maintenance


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The authors discuss new and alternative sources of hydrogen production and the way in which optimising separation technologies allows refiners to unlock the value of H2 currently sent to fuel


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This review covers the basic aspects of technologies dealing with fluid bed coking, to provide an understanding of their fundamentals and potential applications, along with some considerations for technology selection 



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Using the flowsheeting, online optimisation and pinch analysis of an advanced process analysis system, increases in profit and energy saving were projected for an alkylation unit through reduced steam usage in the distillation columns



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A new Excel-based FCC monitoring and optimisation tool has been used to assist in assessing an FCC reactor stripper revamp, a unit troubleshooting problem and a regenerator capacity debottlenecking study


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A decision point is approaching where each refiner must determine the level of investment in technology, equipment and incremental operating costs needed for producing ultra low sulphur diesel fuels 



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An illustration of low cost solutions to ultra low sulphur diesel production, with case studies of integrated hydrocracking revamps – showing up to 70% savings in new units using new reactor internals – and novel separation and coprocessing



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Hydrocracking unit product quality and yields improve with stacked bed loading technology. The catalysts loaded in each bed are customised for changes in reactor conditions encountered throughout the unit’s typical run length


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Feedstock hydrotreatment catalyst provides improved HDS and HDN activity at various unit operating pressures. The resulting economic benefits are gained through better product yield structures and longer pre-treatment cycles


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High-accessibility catalysts allow more difficult feedstocks to be processed through the FCC. These new formulations can add considerable value to refiners running more conventional feeds, but who may have hardware or operating constraints limiting unit performance



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A post audit at a Japanese refinery using a proprietary FCC model and catalyst-evaluation methodology determines a real improvement in profitability. The methodology for isolating the effect of catalyst alone on FCC yields is discussed



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A forecast of the way business and operating fundamentals in a long-established industry are likely to affect future technical applications. The author sees present and emerging technology providing the adaptability to deal with plant disruptions



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BP’s refinery at Brisbane is meeting clean fuels specifications as a result of improvements to key process units. Collaborative efforts have increased hydrogen production from partial oxidation, including the use of heavier feedstocks


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A review of methods to reduce emissions from vent gas systems such as sulphur storage tanks and SO2 streams. Ways to increase sulphur recovery capacity, and the design criteria for achieving emissions requirements, are also discussed

 
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Evolution of regulations in an era of limited capital has led to the development of catalyst additive technologies to reduce FCC gasoline sulphur. These additives can help to avoid more expensive sulphur-reducing options such as pretreatment



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Determining the best course for producing ULSD depends on four factors – chemistry, composition, reaction conditions and catalysis. Guidelines are offered for effective strategies and for deciding how to optimise future ULSD operations


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How a refinery optimised hydrogen consumption to raise API “shift”, enhancing FCC economics. The effect of heavy feedstock reactivity on the operation of refinery units, and its impact on current and future operations, is discussed



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Resid cracking through the FCC can be cost effective with improvements in hardware, catalyst and operational knowledge. Strategies for processing residual streams with units working in full and partial combustion modes are discussed



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A review of the issues associated with the FCC additive testing, data collection and analysis required by the US Environmental Protection Agency’s consent degrees. There are lessons for refiners in successful testing and demonstration


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An explanation of how profit centred maintenance can be implemented in an existing facility, and how it can virtually pay for itself using systematic failure elimination and performance-based contracting


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A review of caustic treating technologies useful in the removal of volatile sulphur from sour light crudes. The authors describe how the caustic treatment of light crude oil at facilities in Kazakhstan has been profitable and economically sound


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Upgrading of the sulphuric acid cascade alkylation reactor-settler system at an Australian refinery decreased acid consumption significantly and increased product octane. Reactor temperature was reduced and acid circulation increased



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An overview of additive technology for reducing SOx and NOx emissions, and a review of CO combustion promoter technology and performance at a refinery. Reduction mechanisms and other factors affecting performance are described



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Crude unit advance process control has lucrative potential, provided it performs when it is most needed: during crude switching disturbances. The authors describe how one company is using first principles inferential modelling in crude switches 



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An assessment of the impact of crudes on operational and product quality, with an explanation of the way in which the crude oil supply chain, combined with the sources of many crude constituents, affects production



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A review of the common pitfalls in scoping, designing, implementing and operating ULSD units. The authors offer various solutions, ranging from optimising hydrogen partial pressures to avoidance of recombination reactions


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Finding and working with the right refiner can make a big difference in returns, not to mention many of the legal implications involved if the refiner crosses the line with regard to environmental regulations when processing spent catalysts



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Improvements to a FCC unit changed its operating characteristics. These changes called for a catalyst formulated with higher activity, stability and metals tolerance at higher throughputs to increase the yield of valuable liquid products


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Catalyst and additive technology can maximise light olefin yields with minimal dilution of the base catalyst and little impact on bottoms conversion. It also diminishes secondary reactions such as hydrogen transfer

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With many hydroprocessing units being pushed beyond their original design, refiners need to improve the unit’s reactor performance. Upgrading reactor top-bed loadings that include reticulated ceramics will improve catalyst performance 



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A variety of isomerisation technologies are available, from conventional once-through and deisohexaniser recycle processes to advanced recycle schemes involving molecular separation processes



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Improved catalysts and adsorbents can increase production without the need for a major revamp.  The authors focus on the combinatorial chemistry used to develop heterogeneous catalysts and adsorbents from new zeolitic materials.
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Various strategies are available to control unwanted secondary reactions in the FCCU reactor’s dilute phase, including vapour quench technology, designed to lower the temperature, or close-coupled systems to reduce the dilute phase contact time


 
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Catalyst deactivation is a challenge to FCCU yields when processing residuum. The detrimental effect of nickel and vanadium in forming contaminant coke and hydrogen can be reduced via appropriate passivation technology



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WPHEs save fuel costs and serve as a cost-effective CO2-trimming technology by reducing heater duty in reformers and HDS units. The resulting fuel cost savings add to emission trade benefits


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Several long-term challenges and opportunities face refiners after the introduction of the European Union ETS. These include emissions monitoring, operational improvements, emissions forecasting and economic emission reduction



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A comprehensive methodology is presented that maximises profitability when processing opportunity crudes while avoiding operational disruptions such as high temperature corrosion


 
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Adding value to LCO is achievable through aromatic ring manipulation, producing high-octane naphtha and low-sulphur diesel. Pilot plant results confirm the effectiveness of partial-conversion hydrocracking technology


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Overall gas oil yield was maintained with heavier crudes due to a crude tower revamp. The revamp allowed for a crude heater outlet temperature reduction and a lower vacuum flash zone pressure


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A concern for many refiners is the increasing complexity of SO2 removal from flue gases in the presence of O2. Various solutions are available to achieve 99.99% sulphur recovery without by-product formation and corrosion problems


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A description of the commercial success that came from implementing a strategy to improve hydrocracking unit performance, including the methods used for controlling polynuclear aromatics and their effect on performance
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Total Site analysis, apart from improving a refinery's energy effeciency, also brings capital avoidance in site expansion, process unit debottlenecking and other benefits.  This article describes how it was applied to a real life problem.
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The authors describe how propylene and amylenes can be alkylated using much less sulphuric acid catalyst.  When a propylene-rich feed is alkylated at high acid strengths, or amylene-rich feed is alkylated at low strengths, acid consumption is similar to that of butylenes.
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In order to choose the right combination of catalyst and technology for the production of diesel with 10ppm sulphur or less, it is essential to have a thorough understanding of the reaction kinetics in diesel hydrotreating from SOR to EOR.
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Two European refineries upgrade reformer technology, resulting in higher reformate and hydrogen yield with improved RONC and longer intervals between regeneration.
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New-generation catalysts, designed with close attention to the paraffin conversion mechanisms and pressure characteristics seen in fixed-bed and CCR units, are further optimised with special catalyst-loading techniques.
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Sulphur-reducing chemistry that preserves gasoline yield and minimises octane loss while avoiding cut point penalties can help meet clean fuel specifications where post treatment and additive systems may not be adequate.
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Upgrading of extra heavy residues and oil sands bitumen has been demonstrated with a proprietary two-stage process incorporating slurry hydrotreatment, using a molybdenum-based catalyst followed by solvent deasphalting.
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The authors describe how crude and side-cut analysis, laboratory and field data lead to strategies for managing high severity operating conditions needed for pocessing opportunity crudes.
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The authors describe how careful selection of catalyst and additives holds the key to achieving the objectives for improving naphtha RON and throughput.  Each refiner has to develop his own system for choosing the appropriate catalyst.
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Replacement of original by new generation catalysts in four CCR units and a fixed-bed reformer has improved selectivity and run length.  Better performance was also achieved with technology providing more uniform catalyst distribution.
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For cost effective ULSD revamps, the use of technology such as online analysers, APC and product quality management is considered essential for finding the best solution for each processing step, for both short- and long-term objectives.
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A case study of real-time optimisation applied to a crude distillation unit, and the online results that followed.  The aim, to maintain optimum economic operation against frequent feedback changes, has also brought improved process consistency.
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A proprietary selective low temperature oxidation technology combined with a wet scrubbing system, was applied to a refinery's FCC unit regenerator fluegas, resulting in maximum NOx reduction with no loss of SOx scrubbing performance.
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A new approach to the treatment of FCC feed that increases ultra low sulphur diesel yield is shown in an Asian refinery case study.  The method breaks the link between hydrogenation and cracking functions and offers a three-year payback.
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Defining the optimisation problem and creating a computer model to generate benefits in different scenarios will result in a reliable estimate of what is achievable through the implementation of online optimisation.
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Retrofitting key technology elements in vintage FCC units can bring many of the economic benefits associated with the use of advanced technologies.  Commercial operating data demonstrate the yield benefits achieved with Lummus direct-couples cyclone and feed injection methods, plus fast payback.
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Feedstocks for catalytic steam reforming include a wide group of streams,  from natural gas to LPG, naphtha and refinery offgas.  Their uses call for ever greater quantitites of unsaturated compounds to be treated.  This article shows how feedstocks being steam reformed has solved the problem.
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Catalytically active sites for cracking are formed from hydrogen molecules, suggesting that when hydrogen is present in a reaction mixture it affects not only hydrogenation/dehydrogenation but also acid-catalysed cracking reaction.
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Steel tubing, piping, and vessels aluminised by the pack cementation process can give enhanced performance and service lifetimes through increased resistance to high-temperature sulphidation in a variety of hydrocarbon processing operations, claim the authors.
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Important FCC catalyst properties and the way they affect unit performance are described in this article, which also reviews operating problems that can be corrected, based on analysis and adjustment of the catalysts' properties.
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Caustic treatment of jet fuel streams using Fiber-Film Contactors has proven to be practical and reliable, compared with conventional systems.  An acid number specification can be obtained in a single stage using this technology.
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The benefits of hydrotreating heavy gas oil FCC feedstocks at different levels of severity  are discussed in this article, particularly the operating success of a combination of processes at the Ultramar refinery in California.
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It is each refiner's responsibility to determine how and where to manage spent catalysts.  Options include reuse, regeneration, metals reclamation and disposal.  Government regulations differ in each country, and they are in a state of flux - it is prudent to consult the regulators and evaluate the options.
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A market-driven integrated refinery/petrochemical complex consistent with current development plans in Asia, including India and China, where there is strong potential for growth in demand, is described in this article.
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The Thiopaq treating process uses a living biological organism and ambient operating conditions in an improved approach to the handling of spent sulphidic caustic, with moderate investment and operating costs.
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To keep pace with recent trends in diesel fuel, refiners must choose processes that ensure future regulations are met.  Technical solutions with built-in flexibility are required to achieve present and future targets, particularly in the fields of distillate hydrodesulphurisation.

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Production of 0.05 wt% S diesel for an acceptable period of time can present challenges.  This article quantifies the effect of a properly designed distributor to enhance catalyst contacting efficiency which, in the refinery discussed here, produced a 45'F lower reactor temperature and double the run length.
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Light paraffin isomerisation technology traditionally has used either zeolite or chlorided alumina catalysts, each with certain weaknesses.  This article reviews a new isomerisation process, Par-Isom, based on a high performance sulphated metal catalyst which is robust and regenerable.
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Hydrogen demand for bottom-of-the-barrel upgrading and fuel reformulation, together with the power-for-sale opportunities created by deregulation and the potential for converting natural gas to liquid products, are raising new and widespread interest in synthesis gas generation and utilisation.
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A research project aimed at developing an FCC catalyst additive to promote octane enhancement has resulted in MAG-O - an additive with high ZMS-5 content, making it easier for refineries to meet new gasoline specifications.
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Initiatives towards the improvement of gasoline motor fuel quality means refiners must modify their processing facilities to meet higher standards.  Catalytic distillation, discussed here, offers flexibility in fitting to existing facilities new technologies for treatments such as gasoline sulphur reduction.
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A review of the method for combining opportunities for profit improvement, together with processing and maintenance requirements, with engineering practices, technologies and expertise.
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It made economic sense to combine two adjacent German refineries, owned by OMW and ESSO, into one unified operation, particularly at a time of tight margins and changing market demands.  The authors describe the decisions and engineering that went into the making of the MiRO, Karlsruhe, refinery.
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FCC feed injector technology has advanced from being virtually a centrally mounted pipe stub at the base of the riser to an arrangement of complex radially mounted spray generators.  The parameters that affect feed injector design are discussed in this article.
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In the heating oil season, many refiners switch from a gasoline to a distillate mode of operation of the FCC unit, to increase light cycle oil yield.  There are various steps to maximise distillate production; some are discussed here.
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It is impossible to enhance the overall conversion of heavy petroleum residues in the refinery by integrating the visbreaker with FCC/hydrocracker.  The integration involves the separation of heavy gasoil/vacuum gasoil cut from visbroken residue and processing in the FCC/hydroracker.
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Low pressure recovery of refinery offgases is discussed in this article, describing the Lummus process which eliminates the multi-stage feed gas compressor yet maintains over 90 per cent recovery of ethylene while cutting capital cost and reducing energy consumption.
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The WSA process is a catalytic system for producing concentrated sulphuric acid from any sulphur-containing offgas, without the use of chemicals.  Among its uses in refineries has been treatment of hydrotreater sour gases and onsite regeneration of spent sulphuric acid from alkylation.
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The major Leuna refinery complex in Germany is now drawing its energy from a heat and power plant specially built for the purpose.  The authors describe features of its design and experience gained in its operation.
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An integrated approach to chemical treatment can improve reliability, reduce costs and extend the life of cooling systems.  Cooling system problems can be overcome by combining cooling water programs with analytical tools.

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Recent commercial applications in Europe and elsewhere have demonstrated that additives can effectively and reliably control both SOx and NOx emissions to very low levels, thus helping refiners to comply with new EU regulations.

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Integrating the complexities of multi-site refinery supply chain logistics using advanced forecasting, planning and scheduling tools gave one refining company the ability to monitor its supply chain in real-time or near real-time.

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Single-stage partial-burn FCC regenerators can provide a low-cost residue processing option for high flexibility and low emissions.  Examples of specific solutions include improved cyclone designs and catalyst circulation enhancement technology.

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The MagnaCat process for removing spent catalyst uses permanent magnets to separate metal-laden particles from newer ones, enabling the refiner to return the most active FCC catalyst particles to the unit, with economic benefits.  

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The SynSat process of customised diesel hydroprocessing has been used in a variety of circumstances since the beginning of the Nineties, and in this article its commercial effectiveness in three different refineries is analysed.

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 In anticipation of new diesel specifications in Europe, a technology has been developed which claims low initial investment but maintains maximum flexibility in upgrading.

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Factors in the corrosion of effluent condensers in hydrocrackers are the subject of this article, which includes a case study of the problems experienced at Riyadh refinery, Saudi Arabia, and the corrective actions that were taken.

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A review of the technical and financial advantages of the services - offsite and onsite - that are available to help refiners keep down costs and obtain the best performance from catalyst management.

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A description of the way in which the Hyvahl technology for atmospheric and vacuum residue hydroprocessing associates a permutable reactor system with a novel HDS catalyst for improving run length and product quality.

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An FCC catalyst technology has been developed which enhances the accessibility of large molecules to the functional sites and the egress of reaction products.

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Catalytic technologies for the control of Nox and SOx have been developed and commercially proven in a number of different FCC units around the world.  They provide a low-cost route for environmental compliance.

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Risk Based Inspection methodology allows risk to be measured in terms of personal safety, damage to equipment, environmental damage and business or financial impact.  The author describes its development and effectiveness.
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A look at the reasons behind the development of the IEC-61508 standard, with a description of the techniques that can be used for integrity level evaluation.

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An account of the planning and organisation that went into a project to converge the operations of a combined 540 000bpd refinery and petrochemical plant, thereby minimising processing costs and optimising product distribution.

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An analysis of the different refinery bottoms processing schemes, identifying configurations that produce the lowest cost feedstock for the integrated gasification combined cycle complex while maximising refinery profitability.

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The author presents a systematic approach to the problems that follow from the increasing demand for hydrogen in the search for clean, low sulphur fuels - and which can result in greater CO2 emissions which refinereis are anxious to reduce.
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An outline of the fundamentals of standpipe flow - the author discusses problems often encountered in standpipes, diagnostic tools that can be used to identify the nature of the problem and possible corrective actions that can be taken.

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The practical implications of producing an ultra low sulphur diesel (ULSD) are reviewed in this article.  The authors define ULSD as a diesel transportation fuel with 5ppm or less of sulphur and with no other specification changes imposed.

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Modern hydrocracking continues its importance as a refining process of choice in the current era of rapidly changing product specifications, particularly for transportation fuels.  Its process and catalyst characteristics are reviewed here.

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An account of studies of the effect of FCC regenerator oxygen enrichment on NOx and SO2 emissions, showing that oxygen enrichment significantly decreases NOx emissions and those of SO2 when SOx transfer agent is present.
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When it was found that standard cyclone designs did not always work reliably, an extensive development programme was initiated to design and produce cyclone systems specifically to form part of a refinery's overall FCC operations.

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Results of using sale dispersant additives on a badly fouled FCC unit has shown that the method allows refiners to avoid more costly methods of naphtha fractionation and, potentially, water washing of the main fractionator.

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The authors describe how selective application of technologies involving partial oxidation, total oxidation and deep neutralisation could add value to caustic streams while meeting environmental quality standards.

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The multiple challenges of meeting fuel specifications and upgrading low value streams, such as LCO and heavy naphtha, call for a comprehensive understanding of various hydroprocessing options.  This article discusses some of them.

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A description of a novel hydrocracking technology that offers refiners a cost effective way of complying with European 2005 diesel specifications, taking into account new configurations necessary to meet capacity and quality targets.

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New zeolite and matrix components, designed with high intrinsic stability and low delta coke and metals tolerance properties, have demonstrated an ability to process high boiling range feedstocks, with improved FCC gasoline quality.

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Moves to minimise sulphur emissions are causing refiners to consider more active hydrodesulphurisation catalysts in revamp projects.  For obtaining ultra low diesel, the authors discuss the benefits of NiMo and CoMo catalyst combinations.

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A discussion of the typical restraints encountered in FCC operation and the methods available to alleviate them, specifically through changes in operation or catalyst, or both - the objective being to increase the fresh feed to the FCC unit.

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Aimed at helping refiners to understand the issues in selecting the appropriate technology for meeting new limitations on sulphur in gasoline, this article reviews current and future specifications and offers a range of available options.

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Refiners in Europe and elsewhere are having to deal with new specifications for gasoline, which are likely to be followed by even tougher regulations in the future, including benzene and aromatics restrictions affecting naphtha reforming.

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Technology is available for meeting 15ppmw sulphur for road transport diesel, but technologies required to produce ultra low sulphur diesel are not necessarily the same as those for producing diesel with high cetane and low polyaromatics.

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A comparison of fixed bed and ebullated bed hydroprocessing rom the viewpoint of the process and sediment formation.  The authors also look at new grades of catalysts for fixed bed and ebullated bed units.

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A cost effective maintenance strategy is of prime importance to the profitability of a refinery.  This article compares various strategies - like condition-based maintenance and reliability-centred maintenance - with risk-based maintenance.

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Hydrotreating FCC feed is a viable option for refiners wishing to produce ultra low sulphur gasoline and diesel fuels, and the economics are superior to product-treating, say the authors, but they warn of the high capital costs that this entails.

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Individual innovations to improve RFCC catalysts, the authors believe, must be an open process and combined to produce continuous development: a wall of secrecy around new developments only serves to constrain future advancement.

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This article reviews the latest developments in a wet scrubbing system that is used to reduce particulate SO2 and SO3 within one simple process.  It can be applied as a particulate-only device and later be converted to particulate and SOx.

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Safety issues concerning HF alkylation units, combined with incentives to process a wider range of olefin feedstock has resulted in options for converting these units to sulphuric acid technology.

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The authors describe an integratd approach to dealing with the complexities of producing ultra low sulphur diesel, involving analytical support and process research as well as computer simulation.

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The authors describe a catalyst managment tool for improving FCCU profitability where metal variations affect operating conditions and addition rates.  It is argued that refiners have the opportunity to increase their margins considerably.

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Cheaper fuels do not always reduce costs, say the authors, and an alternative is cogeneration.  It is argued that fuel saving programmes and cogeneration, applied worldwide, could reduce world fuel consumption by some 26 million tons a year.

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Injection of high viscosity PDMS fluids for controlling the buildup of foam in delayed cokers reduces costs while at the same time increasing capacity and maintaining downstream quality control.    

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With the production of ultra low sulphur diesel now threatening to become a major investment cost for refineries, work is going ahead on a technology that can be used to desulphurise naphtha and diesel in the vapour phase.

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An account of how interactions of unit-specific operating variables, combustion promoters and additives on high temperature fluegasees will affect environmental objectives.  Novel catalytic additives can effectively reduce NOx emissions.

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This article presents insights into the key considerations for residue upgrading and details some of the advances in technology, including online computer control and an innovative water management/coke recovery system.

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The Kyoto Protocol has been one of the drivers, together with mounting regulations and a variety of environmental issues, behind the efforts being made by refiners in the Middle East to develop more cost effective technology.

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Refiners in China are having to tackle problems on two fronts: a growing demand for gasoline and diesel in an expanding national economy, against a raft of new regulations.  One answer has been the development of a new hydrotreatment.

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Three case studies demonstrate how a distributed matrix structure-based additive enables the conversion of low-valued heavy-cycle oil and slurry into gasoline and LPG.

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An on-site gas meter proving method, based on the radioactive tracer pulse velocity technique, can help reduce gas flow rate measurement errors, especially in large-diamter pipelines in natural gas transmission and refinery flare systems.

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Pretreating technology and special catalysts can help refiners meet the current and forthcoming European environmental regulations and improve their FCCU performance.  HDS and MHC modes of pretreater operation are compared.

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Cost-effective exchanger network solutions, designed to increase crude preheat temperature and reduce energy consumption, need to rely on more than just pinch technology if theyt are to be successful. 

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Several possibilities exist for the recovery of hydrogen from offgases and the processing of different sources of refinery gases through the hydrogen plant.  Catalysts play an important role in efficient hydrogen generation and recovery.
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Examination of a crude unit's behaviour using a dynamic model can provide significant insight into the operation and transient behaviour of the process, preventing unnecessary investments in relief system upgrades.

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Using metathesis technology to process refinery-based C4 feedstocks can maximise propylene.  The economic advantages of flow schemes using alpha-olefins, such as ethylene or isobutylene, in the metathesis reaction with C4 olefins are discussed.

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While residual feeds can be run in any FCCU, it is important to consider the riser design, termination selection and stripper technology along with independent two-stage regeneration to minimise catalyst deactivation.

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An examination into the feedstock and process conditions where solvent deasphalting is the most appropriate technology for upgrading residue.  Process variables, key design issues and finding a use for the SDA pitch are discussed.

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Benchmarking is an important tool in routine FCC data evaluations.  It can be used to validate unit data as well as identify areas for improved performance and show important shifts in FCC operation due to catalyst, technology or feedstock changes.

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Despite the availability of hardware for treating FCC feedstocks to comply with clean fuel regulations, gasoline sulphur-reduction catalysts and additives can provide additional options and flexibility while maximising refinery profitability.

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Issues to consider for extending the turnaround schedule of a delayed coking unit.  Theory behind coke drum failure is discussed, with detailed solutions centred on drum design and support structures.

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Catalytic reforming will be of growing importance as a source of aromatics.  Capacity constraints will underpin aromatics prices for the next three to five years, while the location of refining capacity will dictate future aromatics investment.

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Case studies of FCC flue gas power-recovery systems, beginning with traditional maximum electrical power generation configurations.  New PRTs are presented, with a focus on reducing total erected cost and optimised energy integrations with improved ROI.

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Reducing CO2 emissions with a strategic energy-improvement programme.  The strategic energy review approach is summarised and results from recent studies conducted at a European refinery are discussed.

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Many factors influence the decision to build or outsource the supply of hydrogen.  Synergies obtained from a third-party OTF supply should be evaluated in addtion to typical recovery routes from fuel gas, revamped SMRs or new SMR projects.

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Operator training simulators are not cheap, yet their value in preparing personnel for the fast startup and operation of new process plants is significant.  Tight control of information and a well-manageed OTS supplier are key to success.

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Case study of a selective asphaltene extraction process for heavy crude or residuum.  Desirable oil components are recovered and the asphaltene-free heavies can be processed in conventional refining operations.

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Commissioning of an integrated turbomachinery controls system at a world-scale PTA plant.  The expander control system requirements described are applicable to power recovery trains found in process units with hot-gas energy.
      

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One refinery overcame the challenge of converting its diesel hydrotreater from LSD to ULSD service with creative solutions for a low investment cost, much below the industry average cost.

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Potential opportunities exist for developming the heaviest of the non-conventional hydrocarbons.  The decline of conventional oils can be mitigated through the ingenuity and technology brought to unconventional heavy oil upgrading.

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Compact plate heat exchangers are an efficient way to optimise heat recovery in refineries, especially when installation space or weight is crucial and exotic materials are needed to deal with corrosion issues.

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Olefin feedstock characterisation fills the need to engineer and predict the performance of modern pyrolysis coils that must crack diverse feedstocks at ever-increasing temperatures, reaction severities and product selectivities.

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Gasification technology can follow on from upgrading and treating technoloiges to convert a wide range of heavy residues into syngas, which can be used as clean fuel for high-efficiency IGCC power generation or to produce H2 and/or CO.

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Use of pressure swing adsorption to extract hydrogen from offgases that would otherwise be combusted in the refinery fuel system.  Increasing hydrogen purity by steam reforming, effect of tail gas pressure and other considerations are discussed.

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Pairing of isobutylene pretreatment with low-temperature alkylation offers dehydro-based MTBE operators the opportunity to incorporate isobutane with isobutylene to produce large volumes of high-quality gasoline blendstock.
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Overview of a syngas plant automatic load controller shows how reliability is maintained.  The functionality built into the plant automation concept allows the plant to remain in operation, even in the event of a unit trip.

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Various retrofitting and debottlenecking options are available for improving the rated capacity, operating efficiency and energy efficiency of steam hydrocarbon reformers in hydrogen plants.

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A summary of FCC fundamentals and technology options.  Understanding the options available to control the FCC unit's coke yield and delta coke is significant due to their direct impact on FCC operations and refinery profitability.

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Case study of a hydrogen complex discuss interaction of hydrogen processing steps with overall refinery productivity.  Hydrogen partial pressures, pinch options and other important operating parameters influence economics.

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Real-time knowledge of crude properties is obtained via management software applied to a crude network.  With the resulting better characterisation and optimisation, an increase in throughput from the additional crude processed leads to increased revenue.

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Material costs, inflation, shortage of engineering expertise and other risk factors have changed the way contractors and operating companies work together to control project costs.  Business practicies that address these issues are discussed.

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The FCCU is an important source of propylene production.  Hardware and catalyst design changes can increase the propylene yield, but ZSM-5 and other additives are essential to optimise and retain the flexibility to respond to today's and tomorrow's challenges.

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Case study concerning elimination of sour gases and trace components from gasifiction gases.  The objective is to produce pure hydrogen for hydrotreating within a refinery, and a feed gas for energy production in an IGCC.
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Selective hydrogenation and isomerisation of diolefins using fixed-bed conventional technology in a two-phase reactor configuration can help refiners to meet sulphur and aromatics limits for fuels such as gasoline, kerosene and diesel.

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Complex LNG and GTL processing facilities at remote sites can benefit from Fieldbus technology.  Its predictive maintenance and plant interrogation capabilities can add to the overall reliability of the digital-based control system.

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Increasingly complex FCC operations, such as predicting FCCU operation after switching from a conventional feed to a hydrotreated one, can benefit from simulation applications that improve the unit's real-time control system.

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Numerous factors affect CTL economics and the technology for converting different qualities of coal into transportation fuels, chemicals and intermediates.  Potential yields are based on future market conditions relative to crude prices and conventional refinery operations.

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Various rubber products including glues and rubber seals can be manufactured from compounds derived from the recycling of low-molecular polyethylene waste (LMPE)

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A summary of FCC cyclones and their design.  Understanding FCC cyclone vendor process datasheets and how to effectively use this valuable tool.  Quick design checks of vendor cyclone process datasheets using cyclone fundamentals are provided.

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Case studies of upgrader technology selection such as blending of syncrude with bitumen and other intermediates.  Unconventional crude quality is dependent on production location and method, design and final blending.

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An overview of crude unit corrosion-control techniques using low- and high-temperature case studies.  Overhead corrosion control for low-temperature zones and naphthenic acid corrosion control for high-temperature zones are detailed.

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Profiling instrument provides vertical real-time phase density measurement in desalter vessels.  Benefits include reduced process upsets from interface excursions, optimisation of crude blends, minimisation of chemical usage and reduction in chloride carry-through.

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Chemical removal of ammonium salts allows refiners to clean fouled burner nozzles during normal operation without removing them for mechanical cleaning.  Regular maintenance work is reduced to a minimum with less material stress for the equipment.

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A case study involving the revamp of two rotating disc contactors in aromatics service highlights the most important design considerations for enhancing capacity and efficiency in high-performance extraction sieve trays.

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Several routes are available for processing LCO to diesel and gasoline, depending on economics and process objectives.  For LCO upgrading, recent developments promote a two-stage process for separate hydrodesulphurisation and dearomatisation of thiophenic compounds.        

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A case study shows when to expect reductions in slurry/FCC preheat exchanger duty from a variety of factors, including organic and inorganic-based fouling, asphaltene precipitation and atypical feedstock characteristics.

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Vacuum unit design influences liquid volume yields, run length, product yield and product quality when processing bitumen crude oils  These crudes require special design considerations to maintain a reasonable run length without significant economic loss.

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Highly exothermic olefins saturation and silica contamination can occur when hydrotreating coker naphtha.  Recent studies show how optimum process and catalyst technology can help find the best unit layout and operation conditions.

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Equations are presented that correlate and predict heat flux as a function of operating, burner and furnace parameters for all major ethylene-cracking furnace configurations.  Similarity relations correlate heat flux with elevation or temperature in test and field units.

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Comparing technologies for reducing FCCU flue gas emissions. Special emphasis is placed on selecting cost-effective solutions, particularly in the area of minimising SOx, NOx, CO and particulate emissions from operations in either full-burn or partial-burn mode.    

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Advantages of ethers produced through wet ethanol and biodiesel through vegetable oils as esters of hydrogenated vegetable oil provide major advantages in blending and fuel properties and meet the renewable fuels requirements.

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When processing heavy feeds, technology based on residuum supercritical solvent extraction provides higher volumes of gas oil and DAO for conversion units.  Potential constraints through existing vacuum and coker units can also be resolved.

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Refinery alarm systems are supposed to support the operation, yet in several notable accidents they have proved to be ineffective.  Part of the problem is that these systems are not being designed or managed with human needs in mind.

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By recycling about 70% of enriched gas back to the front end of an acid gas enrichment unit, an almost two-fold improvement in SRU feed quality can be enjoyed simply for the minimal cost of providing a recycle line and no increase in operating costs.

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Case studies explore how fouling has been minimised or eliminated from high-fouling applications in oil refineries, such as the FCC and visbreaking bottoms cooling dutes.  Performance of spiral heat exchangers is compared with shell and tube heat exchangers.

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Six strategic options are available to refiners to satisfy future energy and environmental requirements in the light of surging oil prices and public concerns over global warming, including refinery upgrades and revamps and the production of green fuels.

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The outline of a route map or staged approach to unit process improvements, for better distillation, follows similar steps to those taken when installing advanced controls on a unit, and depends on individual needs and the benefits that can be delivered.

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A look at the refining industry as a carbon emitter from a process and chemistry standpoint.  Data regarding the carbon/hydrogen content of various crudes and products are presented.  CO2 controlling projects and their implementation are also discussed.

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Gasoline or diesel?  US market forces skew the product slate towards diesel, but each refiner's target market and required configuration are unique.  A rigorous analysis methodology can help examine alternate configuration options.

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Challenges to refinery heavy oil upgrades are discussed.  Demand for heavy and high-TAN crudes continues to rise as light sweet crude reserves decline.  These upgrades will remain lucrative for refiners, provided they develop strategies for mitigating higher carbon emsissions.

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When comparing biofuel processes, it is important to perform accurate and consistent material and energy balances, as these balances reveal the limitations of biofuels.  Currently, petroleum requires the lowest capital investment.

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Catalyst distribution in the semi-regenerative catalytic reforming reactors at the Tehran refinery, Iran, was studied, and optimised distribution for high RON was determined.

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